The media institutions operate under advance capitalism Essay Example for Free

The media institutions operate under advance capitalism Essay Today, just a handful of firms are responsible for most of the information that people sees, hears or reads. Most disturbing of the concentration of ownership is the unregulated and near-complete control over information in the hands of a small number of very powerful corporations. These big corporations of mass communication and media are becoming more and more influential our lives. The media institutions operate under advance capitalism. The information that we get is selected and framed to serve particular political and economic interests, such as commercial needs and corporate needs, but not individuals interests. The effect of TV, dairy newspaper, magazines and internet so far has largely been to increase the political crises and profit motive. If communication and media are abused, they can be used against society, and changing our world in a very negative way. Western democracies have free-market economies, in which individuals are at liberty to produce and consume according to their own interests.1 In our society, our democracy is based on the free exchange of information, on an open market place of ideas. Many communication activities have been returned to private hands from the public ownership due to the privatization and deregulation. There are several reasons for the concentration of ownership and the cut down of government regulation. Firstly, revenue-strapped governments have become eager to assign more and more areas of the economy to market forces.2 Some government action can lead to a less efficient allocation of resources and slow down the development of the economy. For example, regulatory agencies fixed the prices can only allow the corporate to earn a normal rate of return. In addition, due to the changing of economy, many small firms expand their power by selling to local market, merge up by a bigger corporation. The powerful corporation can fix the prices and control output to maximize the profits, which can benefit the economy growth. They can even cut prices to drive the other competitors out of the business. Implementing the intercept requirements could harm the competitiveness of our country products in the global market. Secondly, the growth of the technology allowed the market to expand without bound. For example, the Internet is a new method of communication and a source of information that is becoming more popular, which everyone can access it from anywhere and anytime. The government cannot interfere with what we see and hear makes it more and more difficult for national governments to assume control of cultural production. Thirdly, peoples sense of belonging to the national community has changed.3 People do not want to put more power in the hands of the government. They think government involvement creates even more problem than they can solve. Sometime can lead to a less efficiently, wasting time and money. The deregulations of the mass communication and media have threatened the public interests. The factors of concentration of ownership, the profit motive and advertisers interests are the main key to determining the production and the content of news and media. The press and the media are responsible for reporting news, issues and events as clearly as possible. Since we are educated about what is happening in the world around us and updated on issues that we care. Any distortions can cause the information to be misinterpreted or completely wrong, result in the misinforming of the public. However, based on the capitalism, large media corporations make profit by selling the audiences to the advertisers. For example, the economic structure of a newspaper is that it sells readers to other business. They are not really trying to sell newspaper to people. They just try to increase their readerships in order to increase the advertising rate.4 They are not trying to provide what people want to see, but to communicate the public to a large number of companies or businesses. The media content is depending on the advertising company, which can affect both the content of news as well as the process by which news is created. We have to think deeply about the questions such as: How all these factors affect peoples lives? What purpose does peoples lives serve as? Can we continue to gain the absolute truth? However, the sad thing is many people do not know or concern the horrors that control and power can bring to our society. Corporate journalism and corporate control of the cultural, information and entertainment complex have always existed. The media has been increased the political crises around the world. Take 911 as an example, the U.S. media devoted huge coverage to the attacks and their aftermath, but omitting a critical and accurate discussion of the context.5 The way which news broadcast, print, radio and Internet present news has a great effect on our emotion or feeling. Many Canadians are indignant as much as the Americans are when we heard that thousands people were killed by an airplanes hit in the World Trade Center. They support U.S to start the war against Iraqi because they are deeply influence by the mass media. The truth is, beside the reason of revenge and the elimination of terrorism, is the over taking of the petroleum a one of the reasons too? Countrys culture industries can be overwhelmed by foreign influence. The United States has always had stringent restrictions on foreign investment in its telecommunications and media sectors.6 Another negative effect of the mass media is the influence of the advertising have on us. Is advertising deceptive? Does it create or perpetuate stereotypes? Advertisements are everywhere in television, newspapers, magazines and internet. These media not only reflect our society, it also constantly reinforces certain ideas and human being.7 Companies and businesses often overwhelming the benefits and advantages of their products. They are willing to stretch and distort the truth, just to convincing people to buy their product. They may hide some facts such as the expensive price. For example, BMW ads amplify the amazing horsepower and the superior performance of their vehicles but will not mention how costly they are. Nike ads are accused of implying that their shoes will give a consumer athletic ability. The result is customers usually buy the things that they really do not need. Children most likely ask their parents to buy the toys and clothing after they have seen the commercial on the TV. It has created a stereotype, such as boys prefer to play robots and girls love dolls. Also, teenagers have become top consumers in todays society, so advertisers have focused on getting their business. Teens like to purchase new items to keeps up with the changing trends. Therefore, advertisers use their view of teens to create ads. Some ads may have bad effect on teenagers, such as alcohols and cigarettes. Although the concentrations of ownership, deregulation and technology have threatened our public interest, we can still able to learn about the choices that we face and make reasoned decisions. We have choice to see, to read, and to hear what we wanted to. It is up to the consumers to make wise choices and develop shopping skills that are intelligent. The one event may give rise to several news. People should learn to make an analysis of the truthfulness and express their own feeling but not influence by the media. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Chodos, Murphy, Hamovitch, Lost in Cyberspace, James Lorimer Company, Publishers, Toronto, 1997. Chomsky, Noam, Understand Power: The Indispensable Chomsky, The New Press, New York, 2002. Ermann, Williams, Shauf, Computers, ethics and society, Oxford University Press, New York, 1990. Gay, Martin k., The New Information Revolution, ABC-CLIO, Inc., California, 1996 Lorimer, Gasher, Mass communication in Canada, Oxford University Press, Canada, 2001. Mckibben, Bill, The age of missing information, Plume, Penguin Books Ltd, 1992. INTERNET RESOURCES: Global Media Markets and Citizen Information http://faculty.washington.edu/bennett/Media_Markets.htm Ansolabehere: Media Deregulation http://bostonreview.mit.edu/BR23.3/ansolabehere.html 1 Lorimer, Gasher, Mass communication in Canada, Oxford University Press, Canada, 2001, p.205. 2 Lorimer, Gasher, Mass communication in Canada, Oxford University Press, Canada, 2001, p.205. 3 ibid p.206 4 Chomsky, Noam, Understand Power: The Indispensable Chomsky, The New Press, New York, 2002, p.16. 5 Chomsky, Noam, Understand Power: The Indispensable Chomsky, The New Press, New York, 2002, p xiii. 6 Chodos, Murphy, Hamovitch, Lost in Cyberspace, James Lorimer Company, Publishers, Toronto, 1997, p.93. 7 Mckibben, Bill, The age of missing information, Plume, Penguin Books Ltd, 1992, p.17.

I Love Those Lips, But Those Lips Belong to Another :: Personal Narrative, essay about myself

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Recently I came across two arches. They were alive and in constant motion. First they told me life might get interesting. Then they showed me that life was going to get really good. Then after leaving me with an odd sense of power, they said bye, now life is sad. Its movements resembled that of a shape-shifter: causing the creation of circles, ellipses, and a mixture of feelings. These were the actions of a pair of lips belonging to a vision of beauty.    When I first saw them they were in their top form. They gave me a smile. The execution of the smile forced the bottom arch to push from the top corners upwards on to the upper arch. Consequentially, they caused my lips to do the same. The intensity was light but was still able to cause the words "nice to meet you" to float into my mind and back into hers. The smile, though light, wasn't like the ones that are often in response to a frivolous or corny joke, accompanied by a lack of energy. It was a creation of a divine entity: maybe God, maybe a god, or maybe a master painter. They were almost frozen together, the lower mimicking the slow rise of the upper one, gaining strength from the power of my stare. The smile became larger. Was I the only one who noticed?    It was musical and soothing. The smile was her rhythmic way of singing "Smile, darn ya smile"i. There could be nothing more uplifting than Sammy Davis Jr. telling you the "...world is a great world after all..." with his foot tapping action in the background. I guess she did not mean this world because her smile was causing my temporary lapse into another. This was how she planned to make my "...life worth while." She, like Sammy, knew that there was a great attachment between the smile and joy. That smile was going to tell the world that nothing could hold you back, the world would halt just to admire the stride of confidence. That smile knew a lot. It was able to impart a wonderful concept without any words or any movements. Now rich with new knowledge I realized that she could have given me no greater gift.    I was amazed by the dynamic evolution of the arches in what seemed to be hours.

Educational policy Essay

On Tuesday May eleventh, 2010 David Cameron became the British Prime Minister after forming a Conservative and Liberal Democrat coalition. This followed five days of negotiation as the general election had produced a hung parliament. While the Conservatives were the largest party, they held an inadequate number of seats to meet the threshold for majority rule, and so formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats, (guardian.co.uk, 2010). Even prior to becoming Prime Minister, David Cameron spoke at length on the Conservatives’ education election manifesto by announcing plans to attract the most educated professional teachers into the classroom. Central to his party’s focus on education was his party’s desires to improve the standard of teacher’s education, he said, â€Å"The most important thing that will determine if a child succeeds is not their background, the curricula, the type of school or the amount of funding, it’s the teacher,† (daily mail.co.uk, 2010). This paper intends to examine the evolution of the Academy school system under the current coalition government, make a comparison between the current the education policy under the coalition government and the tripartite system of the 1944 Butler Education Act. It will examine the effects of both systems on the pupils within them, whether in fact pupils will benefit from the Academy and free school systems or is it the case that there are also be some pupils who are disadvantaged by this  system. There will also be an examination of what will happen to pupils who are not educated in either the academy or free school systems and the influence that market forces will have on the establishment and success of schools. Education is the delivery of knowledge, skills and information from teachers to students; the process of becoming an educated person, (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). Education promotes the abilities to perceive accurately, think critically and act effectively to achieve self-sele cted goals and aspirations, (Gelber Cannon, 2011). It allows individuals to map their experiences and provides a variety of reliable routes for individual’s to return to optimal states when they find themselves facing difficult decisions and life events. Crucially in modern era, education itself is seen as a vital resource for global economies, in fact most first world economies are characterised as ‘learning economies’, (Tze-Chang, 2011). It is the acquisition and retention of knowledge that drives global economies which, in previous generations, were based entirely on pure market forces, (Avis, 1996). Consequently an economy based exclusively on market forces would be unable sustain learning and innovation, (Morgan, 1997). For modern economies to flourish they must develop a combination of a ‘learning economy’ with market forces, (Beckett & Hager, 2002). It is for these reasons that successive governments have recognised the essential value of a higher educated population and have improve the way in which the population is taught from school age right throughout life, (Wolf & Evans, 2011). Even Prior to the Coalition Government taking power, there had been a move towards Neoliberal ideology from the previo us two governments. From 1997 New Labour brought about changes within educational policies that Tony Blair stated were part of the ‘Third Way’. This was intended to evolve social democratic ideals into encompassing the Neo-liberalism that had been prevalent for the decade under Thatcher’s Government, (Hill,2001). Neo-liberalism attempts to evolve away from social democratic principles such, redistributive policy, taxing the very wealthy, defending equal opportunities with a strongly proactive sense of achieving more equal outcomes, relying on the high standard qualifications of professional groups (such as teachers) and regulating these professionals in the interests of equal opportunities. Neo-liberalism focuses on the continuation of the national curriculum which has had a strong influence from central government. So for instance, Margaret Thatcher insisted that events of the previous twenty years had not to be included in history lessons, (Thatcher, 1980). Even today many teachers believe the national curriculum prevents them encouraging creativity and innovation, focusing on a narrow curriculum and a strict testing regime, (McCormick & Burn, 2011). Neo-liberalism encourages the competition of schooling through supporting market forces with the spread of selective `specialist schools’, (Hursh, 2005). New Labour called these ‘Modernising’ comprehensive education’ by encouraging ‘selection and diversity’, (Kassem et al, 2006). One important area of neo-liberal ideology is marrying of private organisations with public services such as education; New Labour termed these `creating new partnerships’, (Clarke et al, 2000). These ideologies question of `standards’ achieved in school tests expecting that education focus on achieving good test results and making these a requirement for entry into Higher Education, (Rowden, 2011). There are concerns that neo-liberal education policies increase in inequalities in terms of social class, (Hill, 2003). In many ways the new school systems will create winners, those who attend new inspiring buildings that are full to the brim with facilities and opportunities for the pupils, however there will also be losers, those who continue to attend buildings possibly built in the 1950’s with teachers who are not amongst the highly paid or highly educated, (Griffiths, 2007). Investment by the private sector, (which is prone to the nuances of market forces) and reduction in public spending on education is considered `increased public expenditure’, from a neoliberal approach, (Goodwin, 2011). The Importance of Teaching, The Schools White Paper 2010, was published 24th November 2010, its intention was to improve the standard of education for teachers and allowing head teachers to recruit and set pay for the highest educated teachers. Following this the Coalition formulated their plans for the future of education in the UK. This would in some respects follow on from New Labour’s neo liberalistic approach of including private organisations in the creation of new ‘Academy Schools’, (Gunter & Forrester, 2008). The first academies were introduced under the Labour government in 2002, (Higher Standards, 2005). Academy schools are independent from local  education authorities and are state funded with assistance from external organisations; these can include businesses, charities or other governmental bodies. The idea followed the inception of charter schools in USA, (Budde, 1988). They were also influenced in part by the Swedish School system. Charter schools are American schools which are independent from their ‘public school system’, (Finn et al, 2000). They were intended to allow the schools themselves more freedom to be more innovative, while being accountable to local education boards for improved student achievement. Charter schools were meant to create partnerships between educators, parents and students. Many Charter Schools began in the 1990’s; however there has been widespread criticism of the Charter school system. One criticism is that funding has in fact not followed the schools, which were often built within deprived areas. This in fact has meant that many have actually lost funding and have gone into administration, (Buckley & Schneider, 2007). Kunskapsskolan schools were established in Sweden in 1999, it translates into ‘Knowledge School’s and currently operates 30 secondary schools in Sweden. Kunskapsskolan schools are privately managed, non-selective and non-fee paying, with funding for these schools provided by the Swedish government, (Eiken, 2011). The Kunskapsskolan model in Sweden has produced higher than average results and is currently the model behind a number of the UK academy schools. The Kunskapsskolan model was based on personalised learning with every student following a long-term learning and attainment plan which is formulated between the student and the student’s Personal Tutor and their parents. The learning plan was designed to ensure that every student achieves the very best results that he or she is capable of. Kunskapsskolan students are offered the opportunity to work at their own pace, using their own learning style to achieve their own goals and those set by accrediting bodies. Parents are encouraged to actively engage in their children’s education, participate in setting goals and are able to monitor their child’s progress through online reporting systems, (Ball, 2008). New Labour intended that the establishment of academies would drive up standards by replacing failing schools in struggling education authorities, (Chitty, 2009). Under New Labour’s guidelines the academy schools could be established only if they held a sp onsor and could raise two  million pounds in independent funding. The government would then contribute  £25 million, (Pennell & West, 2007). The academy would then run the school outside of the local education authority’s (LEA) funding control, but still operate within all the national requirements for curriculum and standards, (Griggs ,2010). The Coalition Government has greatly expanded the number of Academy schools. The Secretary of State for Education, Michael Gove, initially asked every head teacher in England if they would be interested in achieving academy status. By 31st August 2010, 170 mainstream schools had made an application to convert to academy status and as of 1st April 2012 there are 1776 academies in the UK, (education.gov.uk, 2012). The Academies Bill opened up the possibility of applying for Academy status to all schools and no longer required these schools to hold sponsorships or raise the initial  £2 million, (Wilson, 2011). All other schools, irrespective of their ‘Ofsted’ rating, were also able to apply to become academies if they are part of a group which includes a high performing school or if they join an existing successful academy trust. For the first time since its inception primary schools are also permitted to apply for Academy school status, (Bassett et al, 2012). Ofsted refers to the acronym used for the Office for Standards in Education. It monitors and is the overall regulatory body for the provision childminding, child day care, children’s centres, children’s social care, state schools, independent schools (including Academy schools) and teacher training providers, colleges and learning and skills providers in England, (ofsted.gov.uk, 2012). It also monitors the work of the Independent Schools Inspectorate. Following this, The Coalition Government introduced The Education Bill into the House of Commons on Wednesday 26th January 2011 and received Royal Assent on 15th November 2011, (legislation.gov.uk, 2011). The Education Act specified that from now on all new maintained schools must be setup as either an academy or ‘free schools’. So in effect there will be no new state schools, (Needham et al, 2006). Prior to this they launched a new initiative to introduce what they termed ‘Free School’s into the education arena. Free schools are proposed and governed by local community groups such as groups of parents, faith groups or other interested parties. They are free at source to parents and are all-ability state-funded schools set up in response by local people to meet the needs of local communities and in order to improve education for children in their community, (Leo et al, 2010). The first Free Schools opened in September 2011. Alongside Academies and Free schools, The Government also proposed other types of secondary educational settings governed by local community groups such as the University Technical Colleges and Studio Schools were launched. The process of creating a free school begins with the Secretary of State entering into an Academy Arrangement with a person, group of people, or an organisation. These arrangements usually take the form of an â€Å"Academy Agreement†. In this agreement, the government agrees to provide funds for the school in exchange for certain undertakings, including that the school provides provision for children with special educational needs and different abilities. that the curriculum is balanced and broadly based, that in the case of secondary schools, they provide an emphasis in a particular subject such as sport, science or the arts, and that the pupils are drawn wholly or mainly from the area in which the school is located, (Gunter, 2011). One concern voiced is the claim that Academy schools will be completely outside of the control of not only education authorities but national overarching governmental control, (Woods, 2011). However even the regular state schools have increasingly less control by local education authorities and it is certainly the case that successive reforms over the past two decades have given all schools much greater autonomy, (Bangs et al, 2010). Most legislation that governs schools is currently derived from national government or national bodies, such as the national curriculum or Standard Assessment Tests, Ofsted, or government legislation on issues such as safeguarding or Every Child Matters, (Field, 2010). Local education authorities, in fact have increasingly less control over individual schools. LEA’s continue to be responsible for the provision of school places, sitting appeals when a child does not gain a place at their chosen school and taking responsibility when a school fails, (Bradley & Taylor, 2010). LEA’s also continue to have responsibility for the provision of educational psychologists and special educational needs support. Nonetheless, Academy schools system does provide an increasing  amount of freedom not only for head teachers and teachers, in what they teach, how they are structured, pay structures, freedom to adapt the national curriculum and the freedom to vary the length of the school day and how the school sets its holidays, (Bassett et al, 2010) They also offer freedom to pupils in the sorts of the subjects they study and even in fact the kinds of examinations they gain, for instance, the English baccalaureate, (Taylor, 2010) When asked by the BBC’s Mike Baker in 2010, â€Å"what exactly makes an academy different?† The Former Schools Commissioner, Sir Bruce Liddington, stated that they are more, â€Å"a state of mind more than anything else†, (bbc.co.uk, 2010). Sir Bruce Liddington is the director-general of E-Act (formerly Edutrust Academies Charitable Trust), which is responsible 14 academies and free schools which aim to target the education of children in Britainâ⠂¬â„¢s most deprived areas. However critics have voiced concerns in regards to E-Act’s expansion plans in that they wish to create a â€Å"super-chain† of 250 academy and free schools within five years. There has also been criticism of how these schools will be run and the way market practices will influence the teaching, such as buying and selling of intellectual property, (guardian.co.uk, 2011). The Education Secretary, Michael Gove has stated that â€Å"outstanding† schools may possibly no longer have to undergo the Ofsted inspection, freeing them to concentrate solely on education and not preparing for audits. He has also made the link between â€Å"outstanding† schools and Academy schools, by allowing all â€Å"outstanding† schools to automatically achieve Academy status. Clearly this equates academies with quality, (Dept. of Education, 2010). New academy schools will not be able to select purely on ability, however Grammar schools which have converted to Academy status c an continue to do so, (Miller, 2011). Nonetheless Academies can and do select according to the behaviour of the child, (Sales et al, 2010). Much available research points to there being an increase in challenging behaviours amongst children and young people who come from deprived backgrounds, (Wickham, 2011). Michael Gove himself stated, in a speech at Durand Academy in London, ‘There is a direct line to deprivation which begins when children are failed in primary because their behaviour is not policed with proper boundaries and they are not taught how to read properly. When these young people arrive in  secondary school they cannot follow the curriculum and cover up their failure with a show of bravado, acting up in class’, (politics.co.uk, 2011). Michael Gove also made the link between children who have no positive male role model in their lives and, ‘the Educational underclass’, who he believed would ultimately continue on to become, ‘NEETS’ (not in education, employment or training), again making the links between behaviour and social and economic deprivation, (Attewell & Newman, 2011). The attempt to bring children out of poverty and encourage participation in education has been a central theme for the Neo-liberalism policies of the Coalition Government and the previous New Labour Government, (Hall, 2011). However it was the Coalition Government alone who expanded on the idea of the Academy Schools to Include ‘Free Schools’ and the thinking behind such proposals as the University Technical Colleges and Studio Schools. Free Schools are a recent concept introduced by the Coalition Government, making it possible for the first time parents, teachers, faith groups, charities and businesses to set up their own schools, (Morris, 2011). They are non-fee paying and supported by government. Free schools are subject to the School Admissions Code of Practice, other than that they are permitted to accept only those children they chose. The government has stated that Free Schools must meet the same admissions criteria as the National Admissions Code, however they will have the flexibility to select based on their own criteria. These types of schools are an extension of the existing Academies Programme. Free schools are expected to offer a broad and balanced curriculum. They are still su bject to Ofsted inspections and are expected to comply with standard performance measures, (education.gov.uk, 2011) The first 24 free schools opened in autumn 2011. They represent the most overtly market-oriented policy as part of the neo-liberal Coalition government’s school reform policies in England. There is some degree controversy, as these schools are led by market forces and again to achieve success will be motivated to accept only children from a particular group (for instance those of a particular faith). This could lead to some democratic discrimination if they are not made to be fully accountable in terms of the application process, the governance of free schools, and their effect on local authorities, (Hatcher, 2011). There are also some concerns that some free schools will be run for profit. So for example, it was reported in The  Guardian Newspaper,(guardian.co.uk, 2012), that the head of News Corporation, Rupert Murdoch; who is currently being investigated on charges of telephone hacking had had secret meetings with The Education Secretary Michael Gove expressed an interest in applying to set up a free school, (guardian.co.uk, 2012). One example of a free school will be the Phoenix Free School in Oldham which was conceived by Tom Burkard, a former teacher and military instructor. The school itself will be run by ex-military staff and will have a focus on discipline. Burkard says the school will teach children between the ages of 11years and 18years, and will encourage high standards of behaviour, literacy and numeracy, (localschoolsnetwork.org.uk, 2012). University Technical Colleges are described as a new concept in education which offers secondary age pupils from age 14years to 19years olds vocational courses at specialist colleges. There initially proposed by New Labour but had cross party support. The former education secretary, Lord Kenneth Baker proposed them as a means to promote the concept prepare younger people for work. He said, â€Å"We want to forge a partnership between vocational education and universities, further education colleges and employers.† Each university technical college (UTC) will be sponsored by a university or college of further education. They will develop their own specialism, usually to reflect the university’s a rea of excellence. The colleges are intended to be small, with numbers no more than 800 students. Funding is intended to come from sponsorship and from government. The university will not be required to provide funds; however, their assistance is needed for curriculum development, teaching support and guiding student’s education progression. These sorts of courses are intended to reflect a normal weekday and the students will embark on high quality vocational courses rather than purely academic ones. However, there is a requirement that the pupils continue have a background in academic study. Following post sixteen education, the pupils can progress onto apprenticeships utilising support from local employers for day placements with the most up to date equipment. This enhances the employment experience of students and is intended to encourage the development of a work ethic. Pupils can progress on to study for diplomas, A-levels other related qualifications, (edge.co.uk, 2012). There have been  some concerns voiced about the UTCs. For instance, John Bangs who is the head of education at the National Union of Teachers, fears this could lead to reintroducing widespread selection at 14, â€Å"Academies and UTCs are predicators of the kind of pessimism that kids are forever destined for one or other route. It sorts the sheep from the goats, which I’m very opposed to†, (guardian.co.uk, 2010). But Professor Alison Halstead, who is heading a UTC sponsored by Aston University, due to open in 2012, says fears are unfounded. â€Å"Nobody wants academic selection. This type of technical institution is not going to be suitable for all youngsters, and, if it’s not, there are 76 other schools in this area to choose from†. However the Department of Education has strict selection criteria which currently allow UTC’s to select only 10% of pupil admissions based on their aptitude and states that all of new the new school types must comply with the School Admissions Code, (Clegg, 2011). The Studio School is a yet another new concept in education, which seeks to address the growing gap between the skills, and knowledge that young people require to succeed, and those that the current education system provides. Studio Schools are designed for 14-19 year olds of all abilities. They are small schools for 300 students; and with year-round opening and a 9-5 working day, the emphasis will be on creating an environment more like a workplace than a school, (Fuller & Unwin, 2011). Working closely with local employers, Studio Schools will offer a range of academic and vocational qualifications including GCSEs in English, Maths and Science, as well as paid work placements linked directly to employment opportunities in the local area. Students will gain a broad range of employability and life skills through the skills framework, and will have the option to go on to university, further training, and into employment. There are also the concerns that these sorts of education facilities, like the free schools could have influence from market forces, (Bonell et al, 2011). Evidence in the past has suggested that this has a negative effect on children’s education and reduces their life choices in later life, (Gorard, 1997). As mentioned previously, many of the Charter Schools in USA have since failed many because they failed to attract the investment of businesses. The reasons for this are diverse, however some commentators highlight that many were developed within deprived inner city areas. Business ventures did initially contribute funding to set these  schools up but ultimately withdrew support as the area’s the schools were built in, were not in positions to sustain market involvement. It appeared that many were unlikely to become self-sustaining without on-going support from philanthropic communities, (Minow, 2000). It is the frailty of involving market forces into education that causes concerns for many. There are also issues as regards future life choice, for example, would a child whose school was funding entirely by a bank and who experienced the full weight of that bank’s marketing focuses, make another choice as regards their banking when they reached adulthood, (Adkins, 1999)? With all these new types of education structures there appears to be central themes of freedom and flexibility for teachers and head teachers with new opportunities for children, however alongside this there are concerns that these schools will create divisions within the education system. Also what of the children who will not get the opportunity to attend one of these new types of schools? Will they ‘suffer’ from attending less prestigious schools? What of teachers who do not hold prestigious qualifications? Although the new schools are not able to select purely on intellect, they can make some selections which state schools cannot, they can also select out children who have behaviou ral problems. As has been discussed earlier, this does tend to discriminate against children from deprived backgrounds and these were part of the criticisms that the ‘tripartite system of education’ was charged with in the 1960’s In 1944 The Butler Act brought about radical changes for the British Education System with the basic aim was to give every pupil an equal opportunity to develop his or her talents and abilities to the full, within a free system of state education, (Dent ,1948). For the first time the structure of Education in England and Wales was divided into three stages; Primary schools which taught children from 5years old up to the age of 11years, secondary from the age of 11years until 15years (This was increased to 16years from 1973) and then finally optional post-16yrs education in either an academic setting and on to Higher education or vocational qualifications via the further education route. The most important aspect of this was that for the first time, free secondary education became compulsory for all. At the time the Butler Education Act received cross party support, (Boyle, 1972). The Butler Act proposed three  different types of schools; grammar schools (which were intended for the most academic of children), secondary technical schools (which were intended for children who were gifted in the arts, technology or crafts) and secondary modern schools (For everyone else). This became known as the tripartite system. The tripartite system did allow for a small number of schools to combine all three types of school into one ‘Comprehensive system’, however in reality this did not happen, (Francis, 1995). Pupils were assessed by a tests called ‘the eleven plus’ which was administered to them at age 11years. This was a once only test after their 11th birthday. The system was intended to allocate pupils to the schools best suited to their â€Å"abilities and aptitudes†. However increasingly there were many criticisms directed at this system. For instance, the once only test decided a child’s future, the late developers, or children who were ill on the day, children with dyslexia or social problems were expected to achieve the same as any other child. It was almost certainly true that the test which was given by more or less exclusively middle class teachers was biased towards middle class children, for example it might ask a question which related to classical composers, something a middle class child would be more likely to answer right than a working class child, (Moore,1996). The intention had been that there would be parity of esteem between the three types of school, with none holding a more prestigious position than the other two. However, there were often only two types of school available in practice, those pupils classed as ‘Technical’ were denied the opportunity to attend Secondary Technical schools as very few were built. As a result Technical children went to Secondary Modern schools, (Elder, 1965). It was official policy to mark down female scores, so girls on the borderline of the academic threshold were denied a Grammar school education just because of their gender which resulted in them going to Secondary Moderns, (Deem, 1981). In effect, these meant that it became a one opportunity to pass or fail the eleven plus. Those who passed were granted the opportunity to attend Grammar schools, those who failed would be forced to attend Secondary Moderns, (Hendrick, 1997). Ultimately the result that vast majority of children went to Seco ndary Modern schools, (around seventy percent), and only about five percent were accepted into Secondary Technical schools. Consequently the majority of children were automatically considered to have  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœfailed’ the eleven plus, (Simon, 1986). Middle class children certainly derived the most benefit out of the tripartite system, and this was directly at the expense of the working class. Children from middle class homes were more likely to be focused to achieve within education, (Tomlinson, 1991). Middle class children were taught and tested by mostly middle class teachers which asked questions about experiences they were familiar with, (Welford, 1968). Working class children, in particular experienced the democratic prejudice that has more recently been a major criticism of the New Academy school system. For instance the eleven plus was seen as culturally biased towards the middle class; questions related to table place settings for example, something a middle class child would be more likely to be aware of than a working class child, (Marwick, 2003). Children attending the Secondary modern schools were not intended to achieve academic success or enter into the professions. Curriculums were developed out of the interests of local employers, such as manufacturers and agriculture and consequently taught subjects with a practical dimension. As there was no external examinations to be taken at the end of the pupil’s education and pupils were not under pressure to achieve, (Heath, 1984). There was a possibility of staying on for a further year and in the 1950s there was a growing tendency to do so. Those who continued into the 5th year could sit the General Certificate of Education (GCE) and a very small number did continue on to Higher education and the professions, (Little & Westergaard 1964). However this system did change things for many school children. It ensured secondary education was free for all and one of the results of the Act was to educate and mobilise women and the working class for the first time ever (Thompson, 2000). The Tripartite System was abolished by the new Labour government of 1974 and The 1976 Education Act finally ended any selection of pupils by ability thus officially ending the Tripartite System, (Aldrich, 2002). Although certainly there are a small number of Grammar schools who continue to operate and continue to select based entirely on ability. This is in part due to The Thatcher government allowing selection once again in 1979, and it was used increasingly by individual schools eager to choose  the best pupils, (Chitty, 1989). In 1986 the first City Technology Colleges were proposed, arguably inspired by the Technical schools. Although currently there have no further attempts made to restore the Tripartite System, the perceived failure of the Comprehensive System gave New Labour and currently the Coalition Government the impetus to propose â€Å"Beacon Schools†, â€Å"Advanced Schools† and an â€Å"escalator† or â€Å"ladder† of schools, (Brighouse, 2003). So will the new school systems create disparity? Certainly for pupils attending Academies do appear to gain much more from their state school counterparts; often built in brand new or newly renovated buildings, with smart new uniforms, lots of facilities and the best, most engaged and most highly paid teachers, (Gewirtz, 2009). As was discussed earlier, there has been a move by the Coalition Government to increase professional standing amongst teachers, by only allowing those with a first class honours degree to even enter the profession, (education.gov.uk, 2012). As a consequence these young teachers will obviously be sought after and will be attracted to the schools that pay the most, (Avis, 2011). Clearly Academy Schools, who can set their own pay scales, are more likely to attract the best educated teachers, (Lupton, 2011). So what of the rest? Michael Gove has often made the link between non-academy schools and ‘failure’. Immediately thrusting these children in a position of being ‘written off’ as ‘no hopers’ and failures; destined to a life of being a NEET or ending up in youth custody, (politics.co.uk, 212). Will these children in the future, become ‘the rest’ who under the tri-partite system ended up in secondary modern schools, those who were never quite good enough to meet the standards for a grammar school education? In April 2012, the National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers’ union (NASUWT) meeting for its annual conference voiced concerns that academies will be used to dismantle national teacher’s pay agreements and will attack the stability of existing state schools, (bbc.co.uk, 2012). Michael Gove has also suggested that organisations of individuals who oppose the changes in the school systems are, â€Å"happy with failure†, (bbc.co.uk, 2012). However in fact, the Academy school system itself has not produced the outstanding educational results expected, (Barker,2012 ). Barker (2012) stated that the changes in the school system  were more likely to, ‘provoke a crisis than to sustain the last government’s drive for improved effectiveness’. There have also been other anxieties voiced by individuals, such as the celebrity chef, Jamie Oliver who accused the Government of attempting to make profits from school children by de-regulating school meals and allowing schools to utilise private companies and his biggest worry, fast food outlets to provide meals for school children, (bbc.co.uk, 2010). For British society to compete in the Global market place, it has to continue to educate its young people. The United Kingdom (UK) can no longer rely on its manufacturing base or the products of commonwealth nations. In the future the UK’s most saleable commodity will be its knowledge. Any Government will need to invest in its young people, encouraging in them a desire to learn and stimulate participation. The UK’s current market is dominated by financial services, especially in banking and insurance. For these services to continue to maintain the prestigious place they hold globally they must supported by continued inn ovation from information technology, architecture, science and the arts. However education is vital not just for the contributions the next generation will provide in creating wealth but as a part of human life in of itself. The importance of education to children and to British life is beyond question. It therefore should continue to attract the highest levels of investment from Government. Government’s led by individuals who most understand what it means to teach children; teachers. Teachers should be the ones to set standards, not big businesses. Children should be encouraged to participate because school is a place where they can feel valued and happy. Schools should ensure safety, not just within buildings or against school bullies but free from the influence of market forces. Governments should encourage parity across all schools and not attempt to make links between certain types of school and failure. The tripartite system benefitted one group of children with the exclusion all others. Modern education policies should not continue to do the same, because as Ghandi said, ‘You must be the Change you wish to see in the world’. 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How Does Play Therapy Improve the Cognitive and Social Functions of Young Children - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2294 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Medicine Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Introduction This essay will discuss how play therapy improves the cognitive and social functions of young children. A brief review of child development theories and how these underpin play therapy will be done. A critical analysis of published literature on play therapy and its impact on child development will then be presented. Finally, a conclusion summarising the key points raised in this essay will be presented. Child Development Theories and Play Therapy Piagets theory proposes that cognitive development of children occurs in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational stages (Nevid, 2008). Piaget observes that very young children engage in general patterns of behaviour once they are at play. These include being fascinated with objects, covering objects, filling or emptying containers, transporting objects and connecting them together. Crowley (2014) explains that these behaviours are known as schemas. As children assimilate new experiences and accommodate learning, these schemas will help them to make sense of the world around them (Crowley, 2014). Hence, allowing children to play and explore will help them develop a schema of their environment (Keenan and Evans, 2009). Piagets theory helps to underpin play therapy since it acknowledges that play will help children to construct knowledge and develop cognitive abilities. For instance, in the sensorimotor stage, providing children with a tr easure basket will expose very young children to a wealth of sensory stimuli (Shaffer and Kipp, 2009). In turn, this will promote cognitive development as children become acquainted with different sounds, shape, colour, taste and texture of toys. Children, according to Piaget, develop through assimilation or through using an existing schema to make sense of a new situation or object (Shaffer and Kipp, 209). This is then followed by accommodation when existing schema has to be changed in order to deal with a new situation. As children continue to develop, new information is quickly assimilated based on existing schema. Piaget explained that equilibrium is reached when children learn to deal with new information through assimilation. Meanwhile, Vygotskys theory proposes that social interaction is crucial in the cognitive development of children (Shaffer and Kipp, 2009). He suggests that social, linguistic and interpersonal factors all play a role in the mental development of children. In this theory, social interaction during play is critical in developing cognitive learning. It has been shown that during play, social skills are developed along with skills on problem solving (Keenan and Evans, 2009). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How Does Play Therapy Improve the Cognitive and Social Functions of Young Children?" essay for you Create order Critical Review of Play Therapy Play has long been recognised as crucial in the healthy development of children (Ray, 2011). However, it was only in the 1900s when therapeutic settings began using play as a means for young children to express their emotions and feelings. Early proponents of play therapy include Melanie Klein and Anna Freud (Ray, 2011). They used play to help analyse childrens behaviour, feelings and responses to events or situations. Both early scholars used play to help children communicate non-verbally. Today, child-centred play therapy is widely accepted as a means of helping children resolve or prevent psychological and social difficulties and in helping them to achieve optimal development (Keenan and Evans, 2009). A meta-analysis (Bratton et al., 2005) on the efficacy of play therapy reviewed and pooled data from 94 studies that investigated play therapy outcomes. Forty-two of these studies were published in peer-reviewed journals while 50 were unpublished dissertations. Two of the articles were from the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) database. Studies included in the meta-analysis utilised the comparison or control-group design or pre and post-treatment measures. Treatment effect was calculated after pooling data from these studies. Findings of the study reveal that the effect of play therapy on different treatment outcomes ranges from 0.66 to 0.84. According to Cohens guideline for interpretation of treatment effect, a value of 0.80 suggests a large treatment effect (Ellis, 2010). This suggests that play therapy is effective in managing behavioural and emotional difficulties in children. Although duration of treatment varies, findings suggest that 35-40 sessions of play therapy significantly improved treatment outcomes. Findings also appear to suggest that positive outcomes declined with prolonged sessions. For instance, findings suggest that positive outcomes declined after multiple sessions (40 sessions). This suggests that findings should be take n with caution in determining whether long-term play therapy is effective.ÂÂ   In contrast, children ending play therapy prematurely or engaging in less than 14 sessions of therapy did not show positive treatment outcomes compared to children who completed 35-40 play therapy sessions. Meanwhile, investigators of the study failed to mention the average number of hours for each session. This could have provided important information on how long each session should last.ÂÂ   Findings also show that gender and age were not significant predictors of the treatment outcomes, suggesting that this type of therapy is equally effective for boys and girls and across all ages of the children. Although the study shows equal effectiveness of play therapy for different age groups, this intervention might be more successful in younger children. Since play therapy is considered as sensitive to the development stage of the children (Nevid, 2008), it is reasonable to apply this form of therap y to younger children while older children might benefit more from traditional talk therapies (Bratton et al., 2005). The study also suggests that when parents are trained to partner with healthcare professionals in conducting play therapy, the treatment effect of play therapy significantly increased when compared to therapy conducted by professionals alone. Hence, when supervised by healthcare professionals and therapists, the involvement of parents would result in the greatest benefit. A meta-analysis allows pooling of data from studies with small sample sizes and hence, insufficiently powered (Polit et al., 2013). It should be noted that small studies are often rejected for publication due to sample size or once published, have limited applicability due to insufficient treatment effect (Polit et al., 2013). Hence, a meta-analysis would be able to address this issue since findings are pooled (Ellis, 2010). A review of the study of Bratton et al. (2005) reveals that all resource s for both published and unpublished studies were exhausted to avoid publication bias (Burns and Grove, 2013). Further, investigators only included studies that reported statistics and have sound methodological procedures. Further, the study was able to establish that play therapy could be an agent in changing childrens behaviour, help them adjust socially and adapt to a group in order to fit in. Likewise, play therapy also appears to be uniquely responsive to the childrens developmental needs. However, play therapy was compared only to no intervention, making it difficult to establish if play therapy is the most effective intervention for childrens behavioural, social and cognitive difficulties. Comparing play therapy with other form of interventions might help to provide more information on its effectiveness in improving the behaviour of children. Apart from promoting positive treatment outcomes, play therapy also facilitates social competence and problem solving skills in pres chool children (Stone and Stark, 2013; Chinekesh et al., 2014). Stone and Stark (2013) reveal that short-term therapy groups were shown to facilitate development amongst 3-5 year old preschool children. Findings are noteworthy since it has been suggested that very young children are not yet developmentally prepared to engage in a group process (Stone and Stark, 2013). However, findings of the study suggest that very young children are able to participate in structured play therapy. Further, they benefit from these structured plays as evidenced in improvements in their social skills. Meanwhile, Chinekesh et al. (2014) investigated the effects of play therapy on childrens emotional and rational skills. A total of 372 pre-school children were recruited in the study and randomly assigned to the group play therapy and control group. Pre and post-tests were done to compare the childrens self-regulation, self-awareness, empathy, social interaction and adaptability before and after the inte rvention. Findings between case and control groups were also compared. Results of the study suggest that play significantly improved the childrens social and emotional skills (p0.001). Further, Chinekesh et al. (2014) observe that play therapy could help improve the childrens ability to learn problem-solving skills and communicate with other children. Providing an environment where children are engaged in unstructured play would help them develop their social skills as they learn to interact with other children (Chinekesh et al., 2014). Play therapy has also been shown to improve outcomes among children with disabilities. For instance, the studies of Abdollahian et al. (2013); Kasari et al. (2012); Wilkes-Gillan et al. (2014); Cantrill et al. (2015) have similar findings and suggest that play therapy is effective in improving social play skills of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). For instance, Kasari et al. (2012) s uggest that play therapy could help improve the language skills and communication of children with ASD. This was a longitudinal study and followed preschool children who received early play therapy intervention. During the 5-year follow-up, children who received play therapy were more likely to have better language skills. The strength of a longitudinal outcome is its ability to show patterns regarding how play therapy improves the social and cognitive skills of children over time (Ellis, 2010). However, panel attrition might affect the findings of a longitudinal study (Gray, 2009). Panel attrition could occur if several members of a cohort decide to drop out or are unable to participate during the last stages of the study. In addition, play therapy (Abdollahian et al., 2013) has been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms associated with ADHD. Abdollahian et al. (2013) emphasise that play therapy would be effective in managing symptoms associated with ADHD. Meanwhile, Cantrill et al. (2015) point out that childrens social play skills are further enhanced when parents are involved in the delivery of the therapy. A third study (Wilkes-Gillan et al., 2014) suggests that social play outcomes of children with ADHD significantly improved following play therapy. Although this study has a small sample size (n=5 children with ADHD), it was able to demonstrate preliminary efficacy. In summary, recent literature has shown that play therapy consistently promotes positive outcomes for children with or without disabilities. Specifically, it promotes social and cognitive skills in very young children and could be used as a method to prepare these children for transition from kindergarten to infant school. The effectiveness of play therapy is also not influenced by gender and age, suggesting its effectiveness for both boys and girls and those in the younger or older age group. However, the impact of play therapy appears to be greatest amongst younger age children. Thi s form of therapy could also be used to improve language skills in children suffering from autism (Kasari et al., 2012). Literature also demonstrates that the participation of parents significantly enhances the effectiveness of play therapy. This suggests that parents should be involved to facilitate sustained positive outcomes in children. Conclusion Play therapy could help to improve both social and cognitive functions of children with or without disabilities. Hence, there is a need to provide children with a safe environment that would allow them to play and interact with other children. While most studies reviewed in the present essay used play therapy as treatment for behavioural and social difficulties, play therapy could also be used for children without disabilities. Specifically, it can be used for preschoolers to help them develop their social and cognitive skills. As Vygotskys theory suggests, social development would help children develop mentally. Hence, promoting play therapy amongst young children with no disabilities would not only help to develop their social skills but also their cognitive skills. Finally, play therapy could also promote social and cognitive skills in children with disabilities such as ADHD and ASD. It is recommended that play therapy should be introduced into preschool settings for better outc omes for children. It is also recommended that parents should be involved in order to enhance the impact of play therapy. Hence, there is a need to train parents on how to deliver this type of therapy on their children. References: Abdollahian, E., Mohkber, N., Balaghi, A. Moharrari, F. (2013) The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural play therapy on the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children aged 7-9 years, Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 5(1), pp. 41-46. Bratton, S., Ray, D. Rhine, T. (2005) The efficacy of play therapy with children: A meta-analytic review of treatment outcomes, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(4), pp. 376-390. Burns, N. Grove, S. (2013) The practice of Nursing Research: Conduct, critique and utilisation (7th ed.). St. Louis: Elsevier Saunders. Cantrill, A., Wilkes-Gillan, S., Bundy, A., Cordier, R. Wilson, N. (2015) An eight-month follow-up of a pilot parent-delivered play-based intervention to improve the social play skills of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and their playmates, Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 62(3), pp. 197-207. Chinekesh, A., Kamalian, M., Elternasi, M., Chinekes h, S. Alavi, M. (2014) The effect of group play therapy on social-emotional skills in pre-school children, Global Journal of Health Science, 6(2), pp. 163-167. Crowley, K. (2014) Child development: a practical introduction. London: Sage Publications. Ellis, P. (2010) Understanding research for nursing students. Exeter: Learning Matters. Gray, D. (2009) Doing research in the real world. London: Sage. Kasari, C., Gulsrud, A., Freeman, S., Paparella, T. Helleman, G. (2012) Longitudinal follow-up of children with autism receiving targeted interventions on joint attention and play, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(5), pp. 487-495. Keenan, T. Evans, S. (2009) An introduction to child development. London: SAGE. Nevid, J. (2008) Psychology: Concepts and applications. London: Cengage Learning. Polit, D., Beck, C. Hungler, B. (2013) Essentials of nursing research, methods, appraisal and utilization (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippinc ott Williams Wilkins. Ray, D. (2011) Advanced play therapy: Essential conditions, knowledge, and skills for child practice. London: Taylor and Francis. Shaffer, D. Kipp, K. (2009) Developmental psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. London: Cengage Learning. Stone, S. Stark, M. (2013) Structured play therapy groups for preschoolers: Facilitating the emergency of social competence, International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 63(1), pp. 25-50. Wilkes-Gillan, S., Bundy, A., Cordier, R. Lincoln, M. (2014) Eighteen-month follow-up of a play-based intervention to improve the social play skills of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Australian Occupational Therapy, 6(15), pp. 299-307.